1. Introduction

Climate change is one of the global challenges of our time, with far-reaching impacts on the environment, society, and the economy. One critical area that requires urgent attention is the resilience of affordable housing in the face of climate change and resultant flooding. Affordable housing provides shelter to millions of people, and its vulnerability to flooding is a threat to the livelihoods of individuals. The challenge stems from the need to adapt to the effects of climate change while balancing the costs and availability of resources. This challenge is further complicated by the fact that low-income households are often located in areas most susceptible to the impacts of climate change, particularly overflow of rivers and flooding. Therefore, addressing the challenges of resilience in affordable housing is crucial in ensuring that vulnerable communities have access to safe and sustainable housing that can withstand the impacts of climate change and resultant overflow of rainwater and flooding. This essay will explore the challenges of resilience in affordable housing in the face of climate change and suggest strategies that can be employed to mitigate the impacts of climate change on affordable housing.

According to a study by Baloch (2022) published in The Guardian, the ongoing floods in Pakistan are predominantly attributed to climate change. The exceptional land temperature fluctuations caused by climate change within Pakistan have intensified monsoon precipitation, resulting in an unprecedented accumulation of water in the nation’s northern and southern regions (Baloch, 2022). This has led to record-breaking floods within the Indus River basin. Numerous scientific investigations have demonstrated that climate change disproportionately impacts monsoon-affected areas compared to other regions worldwide. The study further stresses that it is time for the global community, particularly those nations with high carbon emissions, to take responsibility also on developing a long-term, sustainable adaptation strategy to combat the recurring effects of climate change-induced disasters in the future. Deforestation is acknowledged as a factor that exacerbates flooding and landslides, and regrettably, Pakistan has the second-highest deforestation rate in Asia. At the time of Pakistan’s inception in 1947, forests covered 33 percent of the country’s total land area; however, this figure has now dwindled to a mere 5 percent (Mir, 2022).

Addressing the issues of climate change and resulting flooding study of Rannard (2022) referred to the studies of experts and stress that the devastating floods in Pakistan are a “wake-up call” to the world on the threats of climate change (Rannard, 2022). However, it is worth mentioning that Pakistan is not a significant contributor to global warming, but it is on a high-growth trajectory of carbon emissions linked to fossil fuel use. Pakistan contributes less than 1% of the global greenhouse gases that warm our planet, but its geography makes it extremely vulnerable to climate change.

Numerous studies have documented the challenges of affordable housing in the face of climate change. For example, a study by the National Low-Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC) found that affordable housing is disproportionately located in areas that are vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and wildfires (NLIHC. 2022; Cornell et al., 2020). Another study conducted by the United Nations found that climate change will increase the risks of displacement and homelessness, particularly in low-income communities (UNDP, 2021).

The challenge of resilience in affordable housing stems from the need to adapt to the effects of climate change while balancing the costs and availability of resources. For example, it may be necessary to invest in measures such as improved insulation or flood-proofing, but these measures can be costly and may not be feasible for low-income households. Moreover, low-income households are often located in areas that are most susceptible to the impacts of climate change, such as flood-prone areas or regions with extreme weather conditions. Pakistan in general, particularly in the present time, is already facing multifaced challenges and problems related to the housing shortage, besides the affordability of buyers, there is a big gap between housing supply and demand. Studies have shown that the housing demand in Pakistan is increasing with time, and currently, Pakistan is facing a housing deficit of 10 million units. However, the total housing shortage percentage of the population is 24% which is significantly higher than the neighbouring countries with similar demographics, i.e., India at 12% and Bangladesh at 18% (Qureshi et al., 2022).

Concerning the housing demand and growing population, the study of IIPS (2022) mentioned that Pakistan’s population living in urban areas, already highly exposed to pollution and climate change, will increase from 37% in 2020 to 60% in 2050 (IIPS, 2022). To ensure cities become more liveable, urgent reforms are needed for more integrated land use planning and increased investments in municipal services and energy efficiency, and clean transportation. Deforestation is a particular problem.

Various studies have demonstrated the link between affordable housing and climate change resilience. For instance, a study conducted by the National Low-Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC) found that low-income households are disproportionately impacted by natural disasters, such as hurricanes and floods, which can cause significant damage to affordable housing (NLIHC, 2022). Another study by the US Green Building Council (USGBC) found that green building strategies, such as energy-efficient design and the use of renewable materials, can improve the resilience of affordable housing to climate change impacts (USGBC, 2020; USGBC, 2021).

Furthermore, the need to address climate resilience in affordable housing has been recognized by various international organizations and initiatives. For example, the United Nations has identified affordable housing as a critical area for climate change adaptation and has emphasized the need to integrate resilience strategies into housing policies and practices (UN-Habitat, 2022). Additionally, the 100 Resilient Cities initiative, which aims to build resilience in urban areas, has highlighted the importance of affordable housing in promoting resilience to climate change (100RC, 2019).

Despite these efforts, there are still challenges to achieving climate resilience in housing. One of the main challenges is the lack of funding and resources for implementing resilience measures in affordable housing. Another challenge is the difficulty of balancing the need for resilience with the cost of implementing measures, which can be particularly challenging for low-income households.

Numerous studies have documented the risks associated with climate change and affordable housing. For instance, a study by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) found that affordable housing is disproportionately located in areas that are susceptible to natural disasters, such as floods, hurricanes, and wildfires (HUD, 2021). Another study conducted in the United Kingdom found that climate change will exacerbate existing inequalities in access to affordable housing and increase the risks of displacement and homelessness (Anderson et al., 2022).

This study aims to address these intertwined challenges by examining the nexus between climate change and affordable housing. Through a synthesis of interdisciplinary research, case studies, and expert insights, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted problem at hand and propose innovative strategies for tackling this dual crisis. Figure 1 has been complied based on the various aspects of climate change discussed in Section 1.

2. Climate Change and Challenges to Housing

Climate change has become an undeniable reality, with its far-reaching consequences already being felt in various corners of the world. The built environment is particularly vulnerable to these impacts, as rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and sea-level rise threaten the integrity and longevity of housing infrastructure. At the same time, the need for affordable housing has never been more pressing, with millions of people struggling to secure safe and dignified shelter amidst escalating economic disparities.

The impacts of climate change on housing and human settlements have become increasingly apparent, emphasizing the urgency for adaptive strategies in housing policy and infrastructure development. Climate change presents multifaceted challenges, including rising global temperatures, intensified extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and shifting precipitation patterns. These phenomena have profound implications for the built environment, particularly housing systems and the communities that rely on them. Many studies have been steered in recent years to highlight the various effects of climate change on human settlements and their habitats.

The study by Adger et al. (2021) offers a comprehensive review of climate change’s effects on housing and human settlements. The study presented two strong and comprehensive reasons describing the relationship between climate change and housing calamity. Firstly, climate change exacerbates the vulnerability of housing structures to extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, heat waves, and wildfires. As the frequency and severity of these events escalate, the physical integrity and resilience of housing infrastructure are put to the test. This not only threatens the safety and well-being of inhabitants but also places significant financial strain on homeowners, renters, and governments tasked with repairing or rebuilding damaged properties. Secondly, climate change poses challenges to housing accessibility and affordability. Rising sea levels and recurrent flooding can render coastal areas uninhabitable or unsuitable for development, leading to a reduction in available land for housing. Concurrently, these phenomena may also drive-up insurance premiums and maintenance costs, making housing less affordable for a growing segment of the population (Adger et al., 2021).

Various studies have thrown light on the psychological toll of climate change-related disasters, such as flooding, on communities. An analysis of populations affected by flooding incidents reveals a significant association with mental health outcomes, often surpassing the physical health impacts. Rates of Common Mental Disorders (CMDs), which encompass conditions like depression and anxiety, have been observed to rise among individuals who have experienced flooding in their homes (Butler et al., 2016; Paranjothy et al., 2007; Tunstall et al., 2006; Convery and Bailey. 2008; Tempest et al., 2017; Milojevic et al., 2017; Fewtrell and Kay 2008).

These studies highlight the profound psychological distress that such climate-related disasters can induce. The traumatic experience of seeing one’s home inundated, coupled with the uncertainty and dislocation that follows, can precipitate or exacerbate mental health disorders. Such findings underscore the necessity for a comprehensive response to climate change that not only addresses the physical and infrastructural damage but also acknowledges and tackles the significant mental health burdens that these events may impose on affected populations. Thus, in the face of climate change, our resilience strategies must be holistic, incorporating mental health support alongside other essential elements.

In their comprehensive analysis, Buchanan et al. (2020) examine the impact of floods on housing structures, emphasizing the need for adequate planning, and building materials to minimize damage. The authors highlight the consequences of these events on the foundation, walls, and overall structural integrity of the affected buildings, providing valuable insights for builders, policymakers, and homeowners (Buchanan et al., 2020).

The adverse impacts of flooding on housing are multifaceted and significant, as noted by Allstate Insurance. Such impacts range from structural damage to electrical hazards and biological concerns. Structurally, floodwaters can cause a multitude of defects within a house. This includes weakened or buckling floors and roofs, as well as the development of cracks within walls and foundations. The integrity of the house’s structure can be severely compromised, leading to potential risks for the inhabitants (Alstate 2023). The study further added that electrical systems within the home are also at risk during flooding. Floodwater can cause electrical wires to break or fray, posing a serious risk of electrocution or fire. Furthermore, household appliances such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, water heaters, and refrigerators may become damaged or dysfunctional because of being submerged in floodwater. This not only leads to the loss of essential home appliances but also presents additional safety hazards.

Moreover, floods can instigate biological threats within the home, specifically in the form of mold growth. Moisture-laden environments post-flooding provide the ideal conditions for mold to thrive. Within a short span of 24 to 48 hours, mold can start to grow on any damp surface. This implicates not only building materials like drywall, flooring, and insulation but also personal belongings such as clothing and furniture. The presence of mold can further exacerbate the damage caused by the flood, and also poses serious health risks to those living within the home (Alstate, 2023).

The study by Eves (2004) provides an in-depth analysis of the different causes of housing defects due to floods. The author investigates various factors, including construction materials, building age, and local topography, to determine their influence on the vulnerability of residential structures to flood damage (Eves, 2004). Whereas Paulik et al. (2021) offer an extensive review of the link between climate change, increased flooding events, and the resulting damage to housing structures. The authors highlight potential mitigation measures, such as improving building codes and flood-resistant designs, to address the challenges faced by homeowners and communities (Paulik et al., 2021).

Besides far-reaching implications of climate change extend beyond built environment concerns, as it poses significant health and safety risks, along with a myriad of economic and social impacts. As communities worldwide grapple with these challenges, it is crucial to portray the complex impacts of an increasingly unpredictable climate. In this context, a study by Mirza (2003) examines the socio-economic consequences of housing defects caused by floods, including displacement, financial burdens, and health impacts. The author emphasizes the need for comprehensive policy interventions to minimize the adverse effects of flood-related housing defects on affected communities. However, Sanjit et al. (2017) present a longitudinal study exploring the relationship between climate change, social vulnerability, and long-term social outcomes. The authors argue that addressing climate change in the region of study caused damage to fragile ecosystems and socio-economics of the eastern Himalayas and these phenomena are causing net negative effects and could be interpreted as an alarming situation in the region.

Climate change causes various traumas to communities and people. Studies examine the health implications of housing defects resulting from floods, including increased risks of respiratory issues, allergies, and mental health problems (Azuma et al., 2014; Lowe et al., 2013). The authors highlight the importance of timely and effective remediation measures to protect public health. Financial losses under climate change and recovery are major challenges being faced by people in affected areas. Besides, Amini & Memari (2020) discuss the challenges associated with insuring properties vulnerable to flood-induced housing defects. The authors propose potential solutions, such as public-private partnerships and risk-based pricing, to ensure adequate insurance coverage for affected homeowners.

Besides the provision of indemnity cover against the possible effect of climate change, Peacock et al. (2018) has compared different approaches to post-flood housing recovery, examining the effectiveness of various strategies in addressing flood-related housing defects. The authors highlight the importance of community involvement and tailored recovery efforts to meet the specific needs of affected populations.

Properties in regions severely affected by climate change experience a sharp decline in value, leading to psychological distress and overwhelming financial burdens (Mostafiz et al., 2021; Brody et al. 2007). These studies analyze the influence of flood-associated structural damage on property worth, revealing substantial reductions in market prices consequently. The researchers emphasize the importance of implementing efficient flood risk control and housing durability strategies to alleviate these economic repercussions.

Dwellings situated in climate-impacted areas frequently face the financial strains of recovery and restoration expenses. Such challenges impose a heavy load on residents, resulting in long-lasting financial obligations and the burden of repaying loans (Eid & El-Adaway, 2019; Wahab & Kasim, 2023). These studies present a cost-benefit analysis of flood-resilient housing retrofits, which can help to minimize the consequences of flood-induced housing defects. The authors advocate for targeted investments in retrofitting programs as a cost-effective solution to reduce flood risks and promote housing resilience.

Discussion under this section provides an overview of the multifaceted consequences of housing defects resulting from floods, including physical damage, health and safety risks, and economic and social impacts, as shown in Figure 2. Physical damage encompasses structural deterioration, compromised building integrity, and water damage to the interior and exterior of residential properties. This damage necessitates costly repairs and can render homes uninhabitable, forcing residents to find alternative shelter. Health and safety risks associated with flood-induced housing defects are significant, as they can lead to mold growth, poor indoor air quality, and contaminated water supplies. These conditions heighten the likelihood of respiratory illnesses, allergies, and other health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly.

The economic impacts of flood-related housing defects are considerable, as they can decrease property values, increase insurance premiums, and strain financial resources due to repair and relocation costs. This burden disproportionately affects low-income households, exacerbating existing inequalities. Whereas social impacts of housing defects caused by floods are diverse, ranging from displacement and homelessness to the disruption of community networks and the strain on local resources. Additionally, the psychological toll of losing one’s home and the prolonged recovery process can lead to increased stress and mental health issues.

5. Research Validity

In light of the escalating global apprehension regarding climate change and its potential repercussions on human habitats, this research addresses the growing need for resilient and sustainable housing systems. The mounting prevalence and severity of extreme weather occurrences, in conjunction with amplified global temperatures, unprecedented rainfall, ascending sea levels, and shifting precipitation trends, present formidable obstacles to housing infrastructure design, construction, and management. Consequently, it is imperative to explore an array of strategies and solutions that facilitate the development of housing systems adaptable to these climate-related challenges. To tackle climate change-related obstacles, this study will concentrate on establishing a robust theoretical foundation by conducting a comprehensive literature review and drawing upon concepts from disciplines such as architecture, urban planning, and environmental science. This approach ensures that the proposed solutions are rooted in a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles governing the interplay between climate change and the built environment.

5. Aim & Objectives

Based on the discussion above and participation at various sites this study proposed to investigate the interplay between climate change and the housing crisis and to develop evidence-based recommendations for policy and practice that promote resilient and sustainable housing systems. Whereas set the following objectives to achieve the study goal.

1. Conduct a comprehensive literature review and theoretical synthesis to establish a robust understanding of the existing knowledge on the relationship between climate change and housing defects and loss crisis, drawing upon relevant theories and concepts from various disciplines.
2. Conduct multiple case studies representing diverse geographical regions, climatic conditions, and housing systems to gain insights into the effectiveness of climate-adaptive strategies and to identify best practices in addressing the housing crisis in the context of climate change.
3. Perform a comparative analysis of the selected case studies to distinguish common failure patterns, contextual factors, and critical success factors that contribute to the resilience and sustainability of housing systems in the face of climate change.
4. Develop evidence-based policy recommendations and practical guidelines that promote the creation of resilient and sustainable housing systems capable of adapting to the challenges posed by climate change and addressing the housing crisis.
5. Identify areas for future research to advance knowledge on the complex interactions between climate change and the housing crisis, and to facilitate the development of innovative and effective adaptation strategies.

6. Methodology

The study involved a systematic literature review across disciplines such as architecture, urban planning, and environmental science, developing a theoretical framework aligned with the study’s objectives. Data collection combined primary sources (case studies) and secondary data (literature reviews) from climate datasets, housing market statistics, government reports, and expert interviews, ensuring a multidisciplinary perspective with contributions from engineering, sociology, economics, and public policy.

Focusing on Pakistan, the research selected case studies from various flood-affected regions to analyse housing failures, the effectiveness of climate adaptation strategies, and best practices, supported by references from (Baloch 2022; Mir 2022; Rannard 2022). A comparative analysis across these cases identified common patterns and critical factors influencing the success or failure of adaptation measures.

The study’s findings were validated through comparative analysis, assessing their alignment with other studies and the potential applicability of successful strategies in different contexts. Research outcomes included policy recommendations for resilient and sustainable housing adaptable to climate change and highlighted areas for further research to deepen understanding and innovate in the intersection of climate change and housing. This approach aimed to provide reliable, actionable insights for policy and practical solutions to climate-related challenges in housing, as illustrated in Figure 3.

7. Research Matrix

The following research matrix as shown in (Table 1) provides a structured approach to investigating the interplay between climate change and the housing crisis, focusing on climate-adaptive design strategies, best practices, and generalizability recommendations:

By employing this research matrix, the study aims to systematically examine the complex relationship between climate change and the housing crisis, evaluate the effectiveness of climate-adaptive design strategies, and generate actionable insights to inform the development of resilient and sustainable housing systems.

8. Case Studies-Hot Spots of Climate Change (Flooding) and Housing Disaster in Pakistan

To accomplish the study objectives, this study considers the climate change hot spots in Pakistan and investigates the interplay of climate change, destruction pattern, and extent of destruction to build environment, particularly housing. Discussion in section 1 of this study has established that climate change has increasingly become a critical global issue, with its consequences being felt in various regions around the world. One such example is the devastating floods in Pakistan, which have led to extensive housing destruction and affected millions of lives. The ramifications of climate change are particularly evident in the worst-hit districts of Dadu in Sindh, Swat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), and Pashin in Baluchistan.

It has been established by studies (Baloch 2022; Renanrd 2022; UNDP 2022;) that in recent years, climate change has been a significant driver of the increased frequency and intensity of floods in Pakistan. The country’s vulnerability to floods is a direct result of the changing weather patterns, extreme temperatures, and the subsequent melting of glaciers. This has amplified the severity of natural disasters, leading to the widespread destruction of housing and infrastructure across various regions. Several studies (UNICEF 2022; Sajid 2022; Worldbank 2022) reported that climate change and resulting flooding have devastated Pakistan across the length of the country and adversely affect the communities in Sindh, Baluchistan, and Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (KPK) provinces. The studies comprise details of the Sindh province, particularly the Dadu district, which has witnessed catastrophic flooding that has caused significant damage to homes and livelihoods. The severity of the situation has been exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and insufficient government support, leaving the residents of the Dadu district in a precarious state. Consequently, the region faces an urgent need for rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on the local population.

Similarly, (UNICEF 2022; Sajid 2022; Worldbank 2022) reported that the Swat district in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been severely affected by climate change-induced floods. The increased rainfall and glacial melt have led to frequent flash floods, causing extensive damage to housing structures in the region. This has resulted in displacement and economic distress among the residents, necessitating immediate attention and intervention from both national and international agencies.

Whereas, in Baluchistan, the Pashin district has experienced its share of flood-related destruction, attributable to the pervasive effects of climate change. The region’s susceptibility to floods, in conjunction with inadequate preparedness and response mechanisms, has led to severe housing destruction and the displacement of thousands of individuals. This scenario highlights the urgent need for sustainable solutions and measures to combat the mounting challenges posed by climate change.

In light of the credible evidence presented in the aforementioned discussion, this study has identified three areas within the most severely affected provinces of Pakistan, namely Sindh, Baluchistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). The research encompasses case studies conducted in three specific locations: Dadu in Sindh, Pishin in Baluchistan, and Swat in KPK, to examine the intricate relationship between climate change, flooding events, and housing devastation in these regions.

As per the findings of Gul (2022), at one stage, floodwaters inundated a third of the nation, resulting in the destruction or displacement of over 2 million houses, the death of 1.2 million livestock animals, and damage to 13,000 kilometers of roadways. Moreover, 8 million individuals were forced to relocate, with 644,000 seeking refuge in emergency camps. The report also indicates that the situation continues to evolve, as standing floodwaters in numerous locations contribute to the spread of waterborne and vector-borne illnesses. Consequently, over 8 million displaced individuals now face a burgeoning health crisis. The study emphasizes that the Sindh province bore the highest percentage of the brunt of the floods, accounting for nearly 70% of total damages and losses, followed by the provinces of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Punjab. The most impoverished and vulnerable districts are particularly affected by the loss of household income and assets, escalating food costs, and the outbreak of diseases.

The districts of Dadu, Swat, and Pishin in Pakistan serve as prime examples of the disastrous consequences’ climate change can have on susceptible populations. Consequently, it is crucial to emphasize devising adaptive approaches and fostering resilient infrastructure to alleviate the impacts of climate change, ultimately protecting the welfare and livelihoods of the affected communities.

In the subsequent segment of this study, each chosen location will be examined in detail to comprehend the origins of flooding and the ensuing impacts on housing and other aspects of the built environment. To facilitate an in-depth investigation of the selected sites, the authors conducted site visits to scrutinize the diverse manifestations of destruction. They also engaged in unstructured interviews, documented the patterns of damage to building structures, and investigated the traditional methods of construction and materials employed in the construction of housing across various locales.

9. Findings of Climate Change’s Impact on Housing in Pakistan

In Pakistan, climate change-induced housing loss can be primarily attributed to extraordinary rainfall and flooding events. In recent times, Earth’s climate has undergone considerable changes, leading to severe impacts on both human societies and ecosystems. One of the most urgent issues emerging from these alterations is the heightened frequency and intensity of floods. In Pakistan, this development is linked to a variety of other factors such as floodplain modifications, unparalleled precipitation, embankment failures, management lapses, and breaches of existing water-sharing arrangements with neighbouring nations.

Floodplains, acting as natural extensions of rivers, play an essential role in reducing flood hazards by offering spaces for surplus water to be absorbed and dispersed. Nonetheless, anthropogenic activities like urbanization and land use shifts have caused significant changes in these indispensable ecosystems. Consequently, the inherent ability of floodplains to protect against floods has been diminished, resulting in more catastrophic outcomes during extreme weather incidents, as depicted in images (2, 9, 10, 12, 16).

In Pakistan, unparalleled rainfall driven by climate change has also become a major factor in the intensification of flood episodes. As a result, the nation now faces more concentrated rainfall over condensed timeframes, leading to sudden floods that surpass existing infrastructure and natural drainage capabilities. Furthermore, the erratic nature of these rainfall patterns complicates flood management tactics, as conventional prediction techniques may no longer suffice for gauging potential flood event magnitudes.

Another pivotal aspect exacerbating flood severity is the collapse of embankments designed to restrain rivers, water channels, and streams from overflowing. Various factors, including subpar construction, insufficient upkeep, and overwhelming floodwater pressure, can cause these structures to fail. Such failures bring disastrous consequences for communities and infrastructure in the affected areas, particularly in the Dadu district, as illustrated in images (2, 3).

In contrast, Section 8 demonstrates that climate change has led to the partial destruction or washing away of over 2 million homes, indicating that housing in Pakistan is highly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. Climate change continues to pose significant challenges in Pakistan, leading to a cascade of detrimental effects, including substantial housing loss and destruction. The escalating environmental crisis contributes to soil degradation and erosion, which, in turn, weakens the foundational integrity of residential buildings. Consequently, these structures exhibit visible signs of distress, such as cracks in walls and compromised frameworks. Moreover, the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall and flooding, exacerbate the situation by destabilizing the ground beneath the buildings. This precarious situation has given rise to widespread land sliding, causing substantial damage to both residential and commercial properties.

10. Resilient Building Design for a Changing Climate

In the following sections, a study has explored the importance of adaptive and resilient design in creating affordable housing that can withstand the test of time and climate. The study delves into the potential of new materials, construction techniques, and sustainable technologies to reduce the environmental footprint of housing, while also making it more accessible to those in need. Furthermore, this research investigates the role of policy frameworks and community engagement in promoting the adoption of climate-resilient affordable housing.

Under climate change mitigating disaster risk revolves around diminishing the destruction triggered by calamities. This encompasses steps taken to reduce vulnerability and boost the resilience and capacity of communities (Baudoin et al. 2016). Such initiatives are categorized into structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures include actions that involve the enhancement of design, the formulation and application of construction standards and guidelines, the fortification of structures susceptible to hazards, and the execution of efficient building practices (Kreibich et al. 2015). However non-structural measures include the introduction of land use planning based on potential hazards and vulnerability assessments, discouraging construction in high-risk areas, creating buffer zones, relocating settlements to safer areas, conducting public awareness programs about hazards, vulnerability, risk mitigation, and fostering disaster resilience (Adelekan 2016).

Given the high risk of damage from climate change, there is a need to improve the resilience of affordable housing to climate change. This requires a multi-faceted approach that involves policy interventions, community engagement, and technological solutions. One strategy is to invest in green infrastructure that can mitigate the effects of climate change. Green infrastructure includes measures such as green roofs, rain gardens, and trees that can help to reduce the risk of flooding and erosion while providing other benefits such as improved air quality and enhanced biodiversity (Parker and Simpson 2020; Khodadad et al. 2023; Choi et al. 2021; Ramyar et al. 2021).

An additional approach is to focus on low carbon and energy efficiency measures that can reduce the environmental impact of housing while also lowering energy bills for residents. For instance, installing energy-efficient appliances and improving insulation can help to reduce heating and cooling costs and greenhouse gas emissions, this will eventually reduce the level of global warming. (Kamal et al. 2021). Furthermore, there is a need to ensure that affordable housing is located in areas that are less vulnerable to climate change impacts. This requires a comprehensive approach that includes land-use planning, zoning regulations, and community engagement to ensure that vulnerable populations are not disproportionately impacted by climate change (Green 2014).

To address the challenges of housing in the face of climate change, a multi-faceted approach is required. Another extensive strategy is to invest in green infrastructure that can mitigate the effects of climate change. Green infrastructure includes measures such as green roofs, rain gardens, and trees that can help to reduce the risk of flooding and erosion while providing other benefits such as improved air quality and enhanced biodiversity (Parker & Zingoni 2019). Another long-term strategy is to focus on energy efficiency measures that can reduce the environmental impact of housing while also lowering energy bills for residents. For instance, installing energy-efficient appliances and improving insulation can help to reduce heating and cooling costs and greenhouse gas emissions (Kamal et al. 2021).

The above-mentioned synergies are time-consuming and extensive and the increasing frequency and intensity of floods due to climate change have necessitated the development of housing designs that can withstand these challenges in flood-prone areas. Therefore, there is an immediate need to address the sufferings of people who experienced losses in their housing. In this regard, various studies have highlighted the design solution for immediate action to prevent losses from another season of heavy rains and possible flooding. In this regard, various studies have highlighted the design solution for immediate action to prevent losses from another season of heavy rains and possible flooding.

Building houses in the cluster and raising the base of a house or lot as a whole above the floodplain level ensures that house enclosures remain dry during floods. This design strategy can employ stilts, piers, or earth mounds to elevate the structure. However, elevated homes may have higher construction costs and require additional maintenance (Shabani, Khan, & Amaratunga 2019). The use of flood-resistant materials also promotes resilience in buildings in flood-prone areas. Materials such as concrete, backed bricks, and treated wood, can minimize damage from water exposure. Furthermore, implementing waterproofing techniques for walls and floors can enhance the resilience of structures during flood events (Mitrani & Sattary 2021).

Building flood barriers (temporary or permanent barriers) around the site is considered time-tested and immediate protection from buildings and housing in low-lying areas. Such barriers can be built from sandbags or floodgates, which can help protect homes from floodwaters. These barriers can be incorporated into the landscape or architectural design of the house (Penning-Rowsell & Wilson 2015). Whereas as housing at waterfronts is highly exposed to rising water levels and sea storms and floods and cannot be braced through temporary barriers, they require special design considerations. In this case, floating homes design and amphibious architecture are considered very responsive and successful solutions. Floating homes and amphibious architecture enable structures to float temporarily during flood events, protecting rising water levels (O’Keefe & Westgate 2015).

Access to the amount of water, and overloaded city drainage during flooding season is a major problem, green infrastructure design could be a viable solution to the problem. Incorporating green infrastructure, such as rain gardens, bioswales, or permeable pavement, can help reduce stormwater runoff and alleviate flood risks in urban areas (Coutts & Hahn 2015). However, implementing these strategies is not without challenges. One challenge is the cost of implementing these measures, which can be prohibitive for low-income households. There is also a need to ensure that these interventions do not lead to gentrification or displacement of vulnerable populations (Streimikiene et al. 2020).

These innovative housing designs, coupled with proper urban planning and policy implementation, can significantly enhance the resilience of homes in flood-prone areas. The resilience of housing in the face of climate change is a critical issue that requires urgent attention. There is a need for policy interventions, community engagement, and technological solutions to improve the resilience of housing to climate change. It is crucial to ensure that vulnerable populations have access to safe and sustainable housing that can withstand the impacts of climate change. Figure 5 extracted from the discussion above depicts the pictorial understanding of issues established as synergies to fight climate change in housing.

11. Recommendations for Housing Design Synergies and Climate Resilience in Pakistan

Considering the obstacles outlined in Sections 8 and 9 of this study, along with the design possibilities presented in Section 10, it is crucial to incorporate climate change adaptation measures into Pakistan’s housing policies and infrastructure development. This requires a strategic approach that incorporates both short-term and long-term planning measures. In the short term, immediate actions should focus on raising awareness and promoting resilience in vulnerable areas, while the long-term planning initiatives should involve developing comprehensive policy frameworks, such as climate change adaptation strategies, master planning, and climate-resilient building codes, to ensure sustainable housing and infrastructure development in the face of ongoing climate challenges, as shown in Figure 6.

Conclusion

This research commenced with the premise that the challenges of housing resilience in the face of climate change are considerable and demand immediate action. Furthermore, climate change disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations, including low-income communities, the elderly, and individuals with disabilities. These groups often reside in areas more exposed to climate risks and might lack the means to adapt their housing or move to safer locations. This disparity underscores the importance of incorporating social equity in the development of adaptive housing policies and strategies.

Throughout this research, an analysis of studies by Baloch (2022), Rannard (2022), and IIPS (2022) have revealed the alarming degree to which climate change has negatively impacted Pakistan. The country has faced considerable setbacks in multiple areas, such as housing, infrastructure, agricultural production, and the loss of human lives. These findings stress the crucial need for Pakistan to implement adaptive measures and resilience-building strategies to counteract climate change’s harmful consequences and safeguard its vulnerable communities, infrastructure, and natural resources for future generations.

To examine housing loss, this study conducted case studies in climate change hotspots in Pakistan, investigating prevailing house designs, construction methods, and issues of non-resilient design at the site. The research identified that housing failure primarily resulted from deficient design, the use of low-resilience materials, the absence of building codes, weakened structural integrity, vulnerability to climate-related disasters, unsuitable locations, constructing homes and other structures in high-risk areas like floodplains, a lack of awareness and preparedness, and homeowners’ limited comprehension of climate change risks, which exacerbate the impacts of extreme weather events on housing. The study conducted a comprehensive analysis of flood-induced housing defects, identifying 14 significant issues affecting various types of constructions (Table 2). The housing types under investigation ranged from adobe and hybrid constructions to Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) structures. Each type displayed unique vulnerabilities to flooding, with defects manifesting differently across these structures.

Drawing from literature reviews in various sections of this research, this study proposed long-term and short-term initiatives to address climate change and housing design (Figure 7). In this context, multiple steps were suggested, such as investing in green infrastructure and energy efficiency measures, policy formulation, trade-offs and synergies, and the use of integrated assessment tools and frameworks by decision-makers, enabling the evaluation of multiple criteria and stakeholder perspectives. These steps will involve residents, businesses, and other stakeholders in identifying priorities, assessing potential impacts, and collaboratively developing adaptation strategies. Additionally, long-term goals include fostering partnerships among governments, the private sector, and civil society organizations, which can help mobilize resources, knowledge, and expertise to tackle the complex challenges presented by the housing crisis and climate change. This collaboration can expedite the development and implementation of innovative, context-specific solutions that balance social, economic, and environmental goals.

This study confined its scope to review the effects of climate change and its implications on housing in Pakistan. However, numerous other research paths are available in the context of climate change and the built environment. For instance, studies can be conducted on topics such as “Sustainable Design for Climate-Resilient Housing in Hot and Arid Climates” or “Climate Resilience and Improving Local Materials and Construction Techniques.”