Introduction
One of the primary global economic sectors is tourism, an activity that provides opportunities for the development of territories in cultural, heritage, social, and economic aspects. Cultural, natural, and heritage resources are part of a network of great value and richness that should be promoted and marketed sustainably with the aim of enhancing the socio-economic development of local populations in destinations and the conservation of resources ().
Anapoima is located 87 kilometers southwest of the city of Bogotá D.C. It is part of the Tequendama province, which consists of ten municipalities (Anolaima, Apulo, Cachipay, El Colegio, La Mesa, Quipile, San Antonio del Tequendama, Tena, Anapoima, and Viotá). The territory is characterized by a temperate climate, making it suitable for fruit production ().
It is situated at an altitude of 710 meters above sea level, at the geographical coordinates of 4°33’01”N north latitude and 74°32’10”W west longitude of Greenwich. Anapoima shares its borders, with the municipality of La Mesa to the north, Apulo and Viotá to the south, El Colegio to the east, and Jerusalén and Quipile to the west. Its total land area covers 125.09 square kilometers, equivalent to 12,509.4 hectares, with an average temperature ranging from 28°C to 35°C.
Due to its geographical location and proximity to Bogotá D.C., it is considered in the Tourism Development Plan that over the last decade, Anapoima has evolved into a tourist hub. This transformation has led to the expansion of hotel infrastructure and vacation or recreational residences, resulting in an increase in the floating population during weekends, holidays, and vacation seasons [Figure 1].
Tequendama Province.
Source: Base cartography from the Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute, Cundinamarca Government, and INVIAS (National Institute of Infrastructure and Road Transportation of Colombia).
Conceptualization of Tourism
Tourism activities are considered to be those undertaken by individuals during their travels and stays in locations outside their usual environment for a period, for purposes of rest, leisure, or business. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines tourism as a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon that occurs when people move to places outside their usual environment for personal, professional, or business reasons.
Additionally, tourism is conceptualized as the set of relationships and phenomena that arise from the movement and stay of individuals in areas outside their place of residence (; ). It is also defined as a product or series of products that are marketable and quantifiable in which buyers, products of interest, and the dynamics that are linked to the final tourism product are identified ().
Currently, there is a critical need for socialization and an understanding of the concept of sustainable tourism, which is considered as the “proper and balanced management of resources, the preservation of cultural heritage and traditions of communities, enabling the improvement of the quality of life of the local population” (). In this context, efforts are directed towards tourism practices that consciously mitigate the socio-cultural and environmental impacts that directly affect the population ().
As a result, tourism is an activity that energizes the economy of a region and enables the utilization of natural, cultural, social, and environmental resources for the satisfaction of tourists and the strengthening of the tourism industry itself. Therefore, it is essential to care for and conserve these resources for the sustainability and development of this economic sector ().
The Development of Tourism
In the 19th century, as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, there was a significant increase in travel among people with higher economic incomes. In 1851, the world’s first travel agency, Thomas Cook & Son, was established. During World War I in 1914, it was estimated that there were approximately 150,000 American tourists in Europe. During this period, beaches and rivers became central to tourism.
Between 1950 and 1973, there was a boom in tourism. International tourism grew at a rapid pace, leading to the development of legislation within the sector. These were also the years in which large urban centers were developed, and the massification of tourism became evident. This mass tourism was driven by the desire to escape the stress of cities and clear minds from the pressures, which led to the standardization of tourism products. In the 1980s, there was a significant internationalization of large hotel companies, and in the 1990s, the Maastricht Treaty was signed, leading to the declaration of free movement of people and goods in 1992 ().
At the national level, the official start of tourism in Colombia can be traced back to the establishment of the Colombian Hotel Association (ACOTEL) in Barranquilla on June 17, 1954, by John Sutherland. On October 25, 1955, the Association of International Airlines in Colombia (ALAICO) was created in Bogotá. Through Decree 0272 dated October 24, 1957, the Colombian Tourism Company was established with the aim of organizing the Colombian Tourism Company S.A. In 1959, the Mayor’s Office of Bogotá created the Institute of Culture and Tourism. In 1996, Law 300 was enacted, defining tourism as an essential industry for the country’s development and for territorial entities, regions, provinces, fulfilling a social function.
Additionally, the creation of the Superior Tourism Council was established by Law 1558 of 2012, serving as a coordinating body among state entities to harmonize the exercise of their competencies with national tourism policy () ().
Territorial Planning Tools
One of the territorial planning tools is the Basic Land Use Plan, in which medium and long-term territorial objectives and strategies are outlined, contributing to municipal development (). This plan establishes actions that enable organization and promote tourism competitiveness. The Basic Land Use Plan for the municipality of Anapoima has undergone modifications and structuring since 2001, with adjustments in the rural component that facilitate occupation processes through necessary legal tools and mechanisms.
Compliance with government guidelines regarding the development of the land use model is essential. These guidelines establish strategies for the location and spatial distribution of activities, determine the major infrastructure needed, and define the characteristics of road communication systems to ensure interaction between spatially separated activities (). These conditions allow for the coordinated development of urban uses and areas, ensuring the permeability of space and existing dynamics.
However, the land use model is influenced by economic dynamics that lead to densification in rural areas for tourism purposes. Despite this, there is a perceived need for “harmonious and complementary coordination between both,” as territorial planning directs “the spatiality of socio-economic investments in line with the desired model of use and occupation” (). This prioritizes regulatory stance and the common good over economic dynamics and individual interests.
The impacts of tourism on land parceling and natural resource governance have been subjects of high interest in recent decades (; ), due to the expansion of urban phenomena into peripheral areas as a result of economic surpluses being invested in rural zones (). There are numerous conflicts over resource management (), the coordination of rural land planning policies with urban ones (), including their legality (), the suppression of agricultural production in favor of the tertiary tourism sector (), and the threat posed by environmental protection (; ).
The complexity of the phenomenon and its multiple manifestations in each location worldwide () underscores the importance of recognizing how it is expanding and developing new strategies to be incorporated into political (), economic (), social, and cultural practices (). The more comprehensively this behavior is understood, the more accurate the mechanisms for its control or harmonization with sustainable development will be ().
Methodology
The research is descriptive-analytical in nature, aiming to determine, describe, identify, and establish the impacts of tourism development on land use models. To achieve this, information was collected regarding the current tourism situation in the municipality from the planning office, along with a literature review related to the geography of the municipality, especially its tourist areas ().
The study was divided into a theoretical component focusing on sociocultural, geographical, and economic dynamics, as well as the history and development of tourism in Anapoima. Planning instruments, such as the Basic Land Use Plan and its modifications from 2001 to 2017, were analyzed, highlighting trends in land parceling and construction in rural areas for country housing and recreation.
A planimetric comparison was conducted for the years 1993, 2006, and 2017, based on the availability of cartographic data in the municipality. This analysis assessed land parceling in both rural and urban areas to determine the impacts of tourism on land occupancy, along with ecosystem impacts ().
Through direct observation and interaction with residents, merchants, and tourists, perceptions, conceptions, and expectations regarding tourism in the municipality were recorded. This information allowed for the determination of the capacity to provide services and the current state of roads, public services, and points of interest associated with tourism, as well as their impacts on the local real estate phenomenon.
A SWOT analysis matrix was applied to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, providing an overview of the current tourism situation in Anapoima. This highlighted the need to implement a strategy focused on sustainable economic development. Additionally, areas of cession were identified in accordance with Decree 1077 of 2015, referring to properties ceded to the government entity for the provision of public space, road infrastructure, or facilities for the use of the local population in exchange for construction and development rights granted in urbanization licenses (). This helped in understanding the guidelines that should guide economic revitalization processes while ensuring multidimensional well-being in Anapoima [Table 1].
Table 1
Methodological Framework.
| OBJECTIVES | TYPES | TECHNIQUES | TOOLS |
|---|---|---|---|
| Identify and analyze the impacts generated by tourism in the municipality of Anapoima. | Descriptive research | Documentary analysis | Cartography, Municipal and departmental development plans, Real estate industry data, Technical documents, and PBOT (Basic Land Use Plan) Agreement projects, Decree 1077 of 2015, POMCA (Water Management and Land Use Plan), Basic Land Use Plan, Tourism development plan. |
| Study the development of tourism in the municipality of Anapoima and its impacts. | Descriptive research Analytical research | Interaction with the population Systematic observation | Field visits Interaction with the population. |
Source: Own elaboration.
Results
As a result of field visits and interactions with the population, strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats were identified for sustainable tourism development in the municipality of Anapoima. This is presented through the SWOT matrix to analyze the identified elements and establish guidelines aimed at mitigating existing conflicts in the territory in response to uncontrolled tourism dynamics [Table 2].
Table 2
SWOT matrix.
| STRENGTHS | OPPORTUNITIES |
|---|---|
| Climatic conditions, environmental richness, agricultural vocation. Historical and cultural variety (rural area), hosting sporting events. Availability of infrastructure (recreational homes). Construction of the third lane on the road connecting to Bogotá (increased tourist presence). | Projection as a rural tourist destination in the Tequendama province. Frequent presence of tourists (weekends and holiday seasons). |
| WEAKNESSES | THREATS |
| Poor road conditions. Lack of promotion of cultural events. Inadequate provision of parking and public spaces. Lack of maintenance of paths and ecological trails. Lack of training for tourism operators and residents to provide better service to tourists. Public safety issues (insecurity). Competition from nearby municipalities. Road closures due to landslides. Lack of maintenance of historical and cultural heritage sites. | Impact on the agricultural sector and deterioration of natural resources. Public safety issues (insecurity). Impact on the agricultural sector and deterioration of natural resources. |
Source: Own elaboration.
In the process of analyzing the Land Use Plan, in 1983, Anapoima covered an area of 50 hectares with 1,010 buildings (equivalent to 130,170.51 square meters of constructed space). Out of these, 780 structures were located along the national road leading to La Mesa in the northeast direction and Apulo in the southwest. Additionally, there were 48 buildings that constituted the population center of San Antonio, and 182 buildings in rural areas. Based on this, 85% of the buildings were located in urban and population center areas, while 15% were in rural areas. ().
By the year 2006, the municipality had consolidated with 4,068 buildings. Out of these, 2,614 were located in the municipal seat, 178 in the population center of San Antonio, and 1,276 in rural areas. This means that 68% of the constructions in the municipality of Anapoima were located in urban and population center areas, while 32% were part of rural areas. There is a noticeable trend towards growth and territorial expansion, as by the year 2017, the data increased exponentially: 378 constructions were established in the urban area, and 4,715 constructions in the rural area. This represents a 72% increase in construction and occupation in rural areas and generates drastic changes in the dynamics and relationships within the territory [Figure 2].
Territorial occupancy of the municipality in the years 2006 and 2017.
Source: Structural review of the 2022 Basic Land Use Plan.
The occupancy data from 2001 to 2017 reveals that the municipality has a structure that, in some cases, encroaches upon protected and conservation areas, affecting natural resources and causing ecosystemic impacts on the territory. It is possible to see the extent of rural land occupation in Anapoima driven by the strengthening and promotion of tourism, resulting in the densification of the rural area with activities unrelated to its agricultural vocation.
Furthermore, there is a noticeable emphasis on tourism activities by government entities, as the establishment of tourist country homes involves expanding physical infrastructure and associated service networks, while basic unmet needs historically persist in the urban area. In this regard, the modifications made to the Basic Land Use Plan have been geared towards the benefit of parceling or subdividing properties for the development of country homes, without adequate compensation for the permanent residents in the municipality.
These characteristics are easily observed in the prevalent parceling of properties of less than five hectares exclusively for tourism purposes. Consequently, the data analysis shows that 4,523 properties are less than one hectare, accounting for 66.76% of the municipal land, while 1,830 are between one and five hectares, equivalent to 27.01% of the land. There are 259 properties measuring from 5 to 10 hectares, occupying 3.82% of the land, and 163 properties exceeding 10 hectares, with an occupancy rate of 2.41% [Figure 3].
Parceling in the municipality of Anapoima, properties smaller than one hectare and from one to five hectares.
Source: Own elaboration based on the structural review of the 2022 Basic Land Use Plan.
Despite the Basic Land Use Plan providing guidelines and tools to facilitate the expansion and rural occupation process, it offers limited solutions for the magnitude of the hierarchical dynamics. Moreover, when focusing on the tourist development of the territory, it influences the dynamics of the city and becomes necessary to address the needs of the entire population.
One example is the system of facilities in rural areas, which would provide necessary access to social services for the population and promote sustainable economic and tourism development. However, the municipality allocates 51% of the land for parceling designated for country homes, 48% for suburban land, and only 1% for facilities. These data validate that the benefits derived from the tourism orientation are minimal for the residents of Anapoima, and land use compensations do not represent significant prospects for sustainable development.
Regarding the structures that make up the territorial occupancy model, essential elements are identified to implement measures that guide intervention and ensure the projection of areas based on an understanding of needs in accordance with existing dynamics. This requires establishing urban planning guidelines to ensure harmony between rural dynamics and the provision of tourist and recreational uses in terms of density and occupancy limits, to promote constructions that protect the landscape.
Therefore, it is considered necessary to implement evaluation models for the viability of projects in the rural area of the municipality and progress in terms of infrastructure development and basic service networks. This aims to promote the continuity of planning processes that allow the consolidation of the city, rather than adjusting normative guidelines in a way that is not congruent during the review process.
Discussion
Parceling in the Territory
The processes of land division and construction in the rural area of the municipality reflect the economic capital generated by the cycle of investments in the territory. In accordance with Decree 1077 of 2015, regarding parceling in Anapoima, in recent years, it has become a constant urban development process of “housing units in undivided properties that have dimensions, enclosures, accesses, or other characteristics similar to those of an urbanization but with intensities and densities typical of rural land destined for country homes” (). This is a consequence of adapting plots for tourist use and even as vacation homes within the legal framework, which contributes to the growth and development of tourism as an economic activity in the municipality.
Likewise, as a result of rural land occupancy, there is evidence of ecological impact and conflict affecting watersheds and other areas described in Decree 2245 of 2011 as water setbacks, which encompass “the strip parallel to the line of maximum tides or to the permanent channel of rivers and lakes, up to thirty meters wide” (). Similarly, Decree 2372 of 2010 regarding protected areas obliges individuals to “protect the natural resources of the country and ensure the conservation of a healthy environment” ().
Municipal Planning Model
The municipal planning model is composed of structures that articulate the elements that make up the territory and harmonize the municipality with the region. The main ecological structure focuses on environmental and landscape protection of mountains, valleys, rivers, streams, and forest cover, following principles of preservation and restoration [Figure 4].
Main ecological structure.
Source: Own elaboration based on the structural review of the 2022 Basic Land Use Plan.
According to the previous figure, the Apulo, Bogotá, and Calandaima rivers stand out in the structure, serving as axes for the formation of linear spaces associated with nature tourism. It is essential to apply regulations and promote the protection and care of water sources and, based on them, implement ecological tourism.
However, in the process of occupying the rural areas of the municipality, conflicts arise between the establishment of tourist elements and areas considered as protection and reserve zones. This gives rise to a critical stance regarding the proposed development in the municipality and spatial harmony between the structural systems considered in the Basic Land Use Plan (PBOT). Contrary to this, the development of built-up areas in rural zones through urban planning measures is prioritized to promote and enhance tourism dynamics.
There is a need to emphasize ensuring connectivity between the rural area and the city center so that the consolidated area of the municipality contributes to and enriches commercial and leisure dynamics. Therefore, the road network should be developed based on city-region scale plans and avoid projecting interventions that limit access to rural areas. Considering the structural system as a continuous and articulated element ensures benefits for all existing stakeholders in the rural area.
Rural parceling and subdivision
In Article 44 of the Basic Land Use Plan of the municipality of Anapoima, rural parceling and subdivision are conceptualized as “developments involving the construction of housing in combination with agricultural or agroforestry uses.” (). This allows for the development of housing with complementary agricultural use. In the research, the occupation of rural areas for tourism and recreational housing is hierarchically evident. According to licenses issued in the year 2016, there were 102 construction permits and 101 permits for the year 2017. Additionally, for the urban area, 17 construction permits were issued in 2016 and 128 in 2017, as indicated in the unique documentary inventory for the years 2016–2019 from the municipal planning office archives.
Similarly, it is considered that the processes of land subdivision in rural areas “must ensure that the rural nature of the land is maintained and shall not lead to the establishment of urban activities or the formation of new population centers” (). Despite this, in Anapoima, there is evidence of the growth and expansion of rural land through mechanisms and tools adjusted in the Territorial Ordering Plan, which facilitate the massive occupation and construction of tourist housing in rural areas.
Therefore, the occupation of rural areas for tourism purposes generates competition for better-located land and conflicts in land use, manifested in the change from agricultural to recreational and tourist uses (). This dynamic manipulates the land value through territorial planning. The economy and politics are deeply interconnected, as evidenced by the tourism approach that establishes hierarchies based on power and control relationships ().
In this regard, problems arise from the discontinuous planning and projection of the territory. Tourism planning issues at the territorial level stem from the widespread lack of coordination between local and regional bodies, a stance supported by the deficiency of necessary urban elements to consolidate built-up areas and contribute jointly to the municipality. This is made possible through the projection of facilities, public spaces, basic services, and road networks to address the needs arising from exponential construction growth ().
Creating tourism-dependent spaces with residential, agricultural, and industrial uses in areas distant from the urban center leads to urban dysfunctions, as tourism areas are limited to the development of the proposed construction unit (). Therefore, it is necessary to transcend the scale of the territorial model concept to that of a territorial-tourism model () as “an activity that consumes territorial resources and endows the territory with different uses” ().
Conclusions
In the municipality of Anapoima, tourism has achieved a hierarchical position in territorial dynamics and relationships, driven by its location and environmental significance that attract external agents seeking relaxation and recreation. In line with Law 300 of 1996, tourism must be considered an essential element of the economic dynamics, justifying the modifications to the Basic Territorial Ordering Plan (PBOT). However, it is necessary to guide tourism under plans and programs designed for its development and promotion in the municipality. These should identify potentials and harmonious scenarios that mitigate environmental, social, and cultural impacts.
Between 1993 and 2017, economic impacts were identified, including mass occupation, tourist influx, and the lack of policies for the sustainability and modernization of rural areas, which led to resistance from the local population toward rural development. Additionally, the excessive behavior of tourists who fail to care for and even damage the places they visit, causing irreparable harm to the environment, has been observed. The positive social impact is reflected in the well-being of traditional farmers who offer attractive options for tourists.
The municipality has promoted massive tourism development through the approval of subdivisions and the occupation and construction of rural properties for private purposes. There should be a proactive stance by the government to preserve and enhance ecological values to ensure the quality of life for the population. This can be achieved through investments in rural infrastructure to guarantee accessibility, transitability for the population, and integration between suburban areas, recreational lots, and the urban center.
Development plans demonstrate an interest in strengthening tourism in the municipality and segregate agricultural activities, making it difficult to develop coordinated territorial economic dynamics. Therefore, it is necessary to implement interventions at the city-region scale in infrastructure and programs that engage and commit the local population to mitigate the negative impacts of tourism and shift the focus toward the well-being and strengthening of productive activities in rural areas.
The implementation of indicators is required to facilitate the task of obtaining information, integrate it into planning and management instruments, and allow access to the various stakeholders who need it. Specific indicators for the tourism model, of a sociocultural and ecological nature, should be considered to differentiate the territorial scope of the municipality and contribute to sustainability through the understanding of social actors.
In the course of this research, the appropriation of the place by the resident population is recognized, as they are aware of the natural elements and familiar with the municipality’s history. This reinforces a shared vision of Anapoima’s future, highlighting the need for an institutional mechanism that involves the community in the construction of policies that benefit local development from the bottom up.